La Fortaleza San Juan Puerto Rico
La Fortaleza San Juan Puerto Rico
La Fortaleza: The Historic Heart of San Juan, Puerto Rico
Introduction
La Fortaleza, a majestic fortress in Old San Juan, Puerto Rico, stands as one of the oldest executive mansions in continuous use in the Western Hemisphere. Since its construction in the 16th century, it has served not only as a protective bastion against invaders but also as the official residence of the Governor of Puerto Rico. The structure, blending military architecture with colonial elegance, has witnessed centuries of history, conflicts, and transformations. This article explores La Fortaleza’s rich past, architectural significance, strategic role, and cultural impact on Puerto Rico.
Historical Background
The construction of La Fortaleza was initiated in 1533 under the Spanish Crown’s directive. Spain, recognizing the strategic importance of Puerto Rico in the Caribbean, sought to fortify San Juan against European rivals and pirate incursions. Originally designed as a simple fortification, La Fortaleza quickly evolved into a key defensive structure.
By 1540, the fort's construction was completed with a rudimentary structure that failed to deter attacks from privateers and enemy forces. In 1598, the English, led by the Earl of Cumberland, captured San Juan, momentarily seizing La Fortaleza. Just a few decades later, in 1625, the Dutch also managed to overtake the fort, further proving its initial weaknesses. These invasions prompted major renovations and reinforcements, transforming La Fortaleza into a more formidable stronghold.
Over the centuries, La Fortaleza underwent numerous expansions, incorporating more complex defensive elements and aesthetic enhancements. Its role gradually shifted from a purely military installation to an administrative and residential center, housing Puerto Rico’s governors since the 16th century.
Architectural Significance
La Fortaleza exemplifies Spanish colonial military architecture while integrating Renaissance and Baroque elements. The structure features thick masonry walls, arched doorways, and a combination of defensive towers and elegant residential spaces. One of its most striking components is the circular Tower of Homage, which is among the earliest parts of the fortress. This tower originally served as a lookout point to monitor incoming ships and potential threats.
In addition to its defensive features, La Fortaleza boasts refined interior spaces that have evolved over time to accommodate the needs of its gubernatorial residents. The structure includes beautiful courtyards, lush gardens, grand halls, and elaborate balconies with views of San Juan Bay. These elements reflect the fusion of military utility and aristocratic residence that defines La Fortaleza.
Throughout its history, various architects have contributed to modifications that have given La Fortaleza its unique character. Notable expansions occurred in the 19th century, introducing neoclassical elements and further reinforcing its role as an executive mansion.
Role in Puerto Rico’s Defense
La Fortaleza played a critical role in protecting San Juan and the Spanish interests in the Caribbean. Along with Castillo San Felipe del Morro and Castillo San Cristóbal, La Fortaleza formed part of an intricate defensive network designed to repel naval assaults. Positioned strategically along the entrance to San Juan Bay, it provided a first line of defense against enemy fleets attempting to seize control of Puerto Rico.
Despite its reinforcements, La Fortaleza’s primary function shifted as other, more advanced fortifications took precedence in military defense. By the 18th century, it was primarily used as the governor’s residence and an administrative center rather than a primary military stronghold.
The Seat of Government
Since the Spanish colonial era, La Fortaleza has served as the home and office of Puerto Rico’s governors. The tradition has continued through Puerto Rico’s transition from Spanish rule to U.S. territorial governance. Following the Spanish-American War in 1898, Puerto Rico became a U.S. territory, and La Fortaleza remained the executive mansion.
The site has witnessed key political moments, including the establishment of Puerto Rico’s local self-government in the 20th century. In 1952, when Puerto Rico adopted its own constitution as a Commonwealth of the United States, La Fortaleza continued as the official governor’s residence.
Cultural and Symbolic Importance
La Fortaleza is not just a governmental building; it is a profound symbol of Puerto Rico’s resilience, heritage, and evolving identity. It has become a representation of the island’s historical struggles, from colonial rule to its present-day political status.
The fortress is a UNESCO World Heritage Site, recognized for its historical and architectural value. Tourists and historians alike visit La Fortaleza to appreciate its beauty and significance. The site also hosts official state functions, welcoming dignitaries and cultural events that celebrate Puerto Rico’s heritage.
Throughout history, La Fortaleza has also been the site of protests and political movements. Puerto Ricans have gathered outside its gates to express their aspirations for political change, whether advocating for greater autonomy, statehood, or other reforms.
Restoration and Preservation
Given its historical importance, extensive efforts have been made to preserve La Fortaleza. Conservation projects have focused on restoring its walls, maintaining its gardens, and reinforcing the structure against environmental damage. The tropical climate, humidity, and occasional hurricanes pose continuous challenges to the fortress’s upkeep.
Restoration work is carried out under the supervision of historians, architects, and government agencies to ensure authenticity in preserving the original design while accommodating modern requirements. UNESCO and other preservation organizations have contributed resources to safeguarding the site for future generations.
Tourism and Public Access
La Fortaleza is a major attraction for visitors to Old San Juan. Guided tours provide insights into its history, architecture, and political role. Visitors can explore its grand rooms, gardens, and scenic viewpoints overlooking the bay.
The fortress is part of the larger historic district of Old San Juan, where cobblestone streets, colorful colonial buildings, and other landmarks such as El Morro and San Cristóbal fortresses create a rich cultural experience.
Beyond its historical exhibitions, La Fortaleza occasionally hosts art exhibitions, cultural performances, and holiday celebrations, further integrating it into Puerto Rico’s contemporary cultural life.
Through ongoing preservation efforts, La Fortaleza continues to serve as both a historical monument and a living symbol of governance. Its walls, having withstood centuries of change, continue to tell the story of Puerto Rico’s past, present, and future.
Old Havana and its Fortification System 🇨🇺 CUBA
Old Havana (La Habana Vieja) stands as a timeless testament to Cuba’s rich history and its strategic importance during the colonial era. Founded in 1519 by the Spanish, the city became a significant port for trade between the New World and Europe. Its architectural splendor, cobbled streets, and well-preserved fortifications reflect centuries of cultural exchange and military ingenuity. In 1982, Old Havana and its Fortification System were designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site, recognizing their outstanding universal value.
This essay explores the historical evolution, architectural brilliance, cultural significance, and ongoing preservation of Old Havana and its Fortification System.
Historical Evolution
The Founding of Havana
Havana’s establishment in 1519 marked the beginning of its transformation into a vital hub of the Spanish Empire. Strategically located on the northwest coast of Cuba, Havana quickly became a key stopover for Spanish galleons laden with treasures from the Americas. Its natural harbor offered protection and served as an ideal base for naval operations.
The Threat of Pirates
By the 16th century, the Caribbean was rife with piracy. Havana’s prominence made it a prime target for attacks by corsairs and buccaneers, including the infamous Francis Drake. These threats underscored the need for robust defenses, leading to the construction of an intricate fortification system.
The Fortification Era
From the late 16th to the 18th century, Havana’s defenses were systematically expanded. Spanish engineers designed an array of fortresses, walls, and towers to safeguard the city. Key among these were Castillo de la Real Fuerza, Castillo de los Tres Reyes del Morro, and La Cabaña Fortress. These structures not only protected Havana but also showcased the Spanish Empire’s military engineering prowess.
The Fortifications of Old Havana
Castillo de la Real Fuerza
Built between 1558 and 1577, Castillo de la Real Fuerza is the oldest stone fort in the Americas. Its strategic position near the harbor’s entrance was intended to deter pirate attacks. While its effectiveness was limited due to its location, the fortress’s elegant design and iconic weather vane, “La Giraldilla,” have made it a symbol of Havana.
Castillo de los Tres Reyes del Morro
Constructed in 1589, this fortress guarded the entrance to Havana Bay. Its imposing walls and strategic placement made it a formidable deterrent to invaders. The lighthouse, added in the 19th century, remains an enduring landmark.
San Salvador de la Punta
Located on the western side of Havana Bay, this smaller fortification complemented El Morro in protecting the harbor. A chain stretched between the two fortresses could block enemy ships from entering the bay.
Fortaleza San Carlos de la Cabaña
Built in the 18th century, La Cabaña Fortress is one of the largest in the Americas. Its construction reflected advances in military architecture, featuring bastions, barracks, and moats. Today, it serves as a cultural and historical center, hosting events like the nightly cannon ceremony.
City Walls
The walls encircling Old Havana were completed in the 17th century to protect the growing city. These massive stone barriers, equipped with gates and bastions, encapsulated the city’s colonial core. Although much of the walls were dismantled in the 19th century to accommodate urban expansion, remnants remain as reminders of Havana’s fortified past.
Architectural Brilliance
The fortifications of Old Havana exemplify Spanish colonial military architecture. They incorporate elements of the Italian bastion system, adapted to the tropical climate and local materials. Thick stone walls, angular bastions, and strategic positioning maximized defensive capabilities while minimizing vulnerabilities.
The use of coral limestone, quarried locally, provided durability and a distinctive aesthetic. Intricate carvings, battlements, and lookout towers added to the grandeur of these fortresses, reflecting the Spanish Crown’s determination to project power and wealth.
Cultural and Historical Significance
A Hub of Trade and Power
Havana’s fortifications underscored its role as a linchpin of Spanish colonial power. The city’s protected harbor became a gathering point for treasure fleets, which carried vast riches to Spain. This wealth fueled the Spanish Empire and shaped global trade routes.
Symbol of Resilience
The fortresses of Old Havana bear witness to the city’s resilience against external threats. Despite numerous attacks, including the British occupation of Havana in 1762, the city endured and thrived, becoming a beacon of colonial ingenuity and determination.
A Cultural Mosaic
Old Havana’s fortifications are part of a broader urban landscape that reflects centuries of cultural exchange. Spanish, African, and indigenous influences converge in the city’s architecture, music, and traditions. The preservation of these fortifications has helped safeguard this cultural heritage for future generations.
Preservation and Restoration
UNESCO Designation
The inclusion of Old Havana and its Fortification System on the UNESCO World Heritage List in 1982 highlighted their global significance. This recognition spurred efforts to preserve and restore the city’s historic core.
Restoration Efforts
Since the 1990s, extensive restoration projects have been undertaken to rehabilitate Havana’s fortifications and historic buildings. The Office of the Historian of Havana, led by Dr. Eusebio Leal, played a pivotal role in these efforts. Funding from international organizations and partnerships has enabled the meticulous restoration of key landmarks.
Challenges
Preservation efforts face numerous challenges, including limited resources, environmental degradation, and the pressures of modern urban development. Rising sea levels and hurricanes pose additional threats to the integrity of Havana’s fortifications.
Old Havana and its Fortification System
Introduction
Old Havana (La Habana Vieja) stands as a timeless testament to Cuba’s rich history and its strategic importance during the colonial era. Founded in 1519 by the Spanish, the city became a significant port for trade between the New World and Europe. Its architectural splendor, cobbled streets, and well-preserved fortifications reflect centuries of cultural exchange and military ingenuity. In 1982, Old Havana and its Fortification System were designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site, recognizing their outstanding universal value.
This essay explores the historical evolution, architectural brilliance, cultural significance, and ongoing preservation of Old Havana and its Fortification System.
Historical Evolution
The Founding of Havana
Havana’s establishment in 1519 marked the beginning of its transformation into a vital hub of the Spanish Empire. Strategically located on the northwest coast of Cuba, Havana quickly became a key stopover for Spanish galleons laden with treasures from the Americas. Its natural harbor offered protection and served as an ideal base for naval operations.
The Threat of Pirates
By the 16th century, the Caribbean was rife with piracy. Havana’s prominence made it a prime target for attacks by corsairs and buccaneers, including the infamous Francis Drake. These threats underscored the need for robust defenses, leading to the construction of an intricate fortification system.
The Fortification Era
From the late 16th to the 18th century, Havana’s defenses were systematically expanded. Spanish engineers designed an array of fortresses, walls, and towers to safeguard the city. Key among these were Castillo de la Real Fuerza, Castillo de los Tres Reyes del Morro, and La Cabaña Fortress. These structures not only protected Havana but also showcased the Spanish Empire’s military engineering prowess.
The Fortifications of Old Havana
Castillo de la Real Fuerza
Built between 1558 and 1577, Castillo de la Real Fuerza is the oldest stone fort in the Americas. Its strategic position near the harbor’s entrance was intended to deter pirate attacks. While its effectiveness was limited due to its location, the fortress’s elegant design and iconic weather vane, “La Giraldilla,” have made it a symbol of Havana.
Castillo de los Tres Reyes del Morro
Constructed in 1589, this fortress guarded the entrance to Havana Bay. Its imposing walls and strategic placement made it a formidable deterrent to invaders. The lighthouse, added in the 19th century, remains an enduring landmark.
San Salvador de la Punta
Located on the western side of Havana Bay, this smaller fortification complemented El Morro in protecting the harbor. A chain stretched between the two fortresses could block enemy ships from entering the bay.
La Cabaña Fortress
Built in the 18th century, La Cabaña Fortress is one of the largest in the Americas. Its construction reflected advances in military architecture, featuring bastions, barracks, and moats. Today, it serves as a cultural and historical center, hosting events like the nightly cannon ceremony.
City Walls
The walls encircling Old Havana were completed in the 17th century to protect the growing city. These massive stone barriers, equipped with gates and bastions, encapsulated the city’s colonial core. Although much of the walls were dismantled in the 19th century to accommodate urban expansion, remnants remain as reminders of Havana’s fortified past.
Architectural Brilliance
The fortifications of Old Havana exemplify Spanish colonial military architecture. They incorporate elements of the Italian bastion system, adapted to the tropical climate and local materials. Thick stone walls, angular bastions, and strategic positioning maximized defensive capabilities while minimizing vulnerabilities.
The use of coral limestone, quarried locally, provided durability and a distinctive aesthetic. Intricate carvings, battlements, and lookout towers added to the grandeur of these fortresses, reflecting the Spanish Crown’s determination to project power and wealth.
Cultural and Historical Significance
A Hub of Trade and Power
Havana’s fortifications underscored its role as a linchpin of Spanish colonial power. The city’s protected harbor became a gathering point for treasure fleets, which carried vast riches to Spain. This wealth fueled the Spanish Empire and shaped global trade routes.
Symbol of Resilience
The fortresses of Old Havana bear witness to the city’s resilience against external threats. Despite numerous attacks, including the British occupation of Havana in 1762, the city endured and thrived, becoming a beacon of colonial ingenuity and determination.
A Cultural Mosaic
Old Havana’s fortifications are part of a broader urban landscape that reflects centuries of cultural exchange. Spanish, African, and indigenous influences converge in the city’s architecture, music, and traditions. The preservation of these fortifications has helped safeguard this cultural heritage for future generations.
Preservation and Restoration
UNESCO Designation
The inclusion of Old Havana and its Fortification System on the UNESCO World Heritage List in 1982 highlighted their global significance. This recognition spurred efforts to preserve and restore the city’s historic core.
Restoration Efforts
Since the 1990s, extensive restoration projects have been undertaken to rehabilitate Havana’s fortifications and historic buildings. The Office of the Historian of Havana, led by Dr. Eusebio Leal, played a pivotal role in these efforts. Funding from international organizations and partnerships has enabled the meticulous restoration of key landmarks.
Challenges
Preservation efforts face numerous challenges, including limited resources, environmental degradation, and the pressures of modern urban development. Rising sea levels and hurricanes pose additional threats to the integrity of Havana’s fortifications.
Tourism
Old Havana and its fortifications attract millions of visitors each year. Tourists flock to explore the historic streets, marvel at the forts, and immerse themselves in the city’s vibrant culture. Guided tours, museums, and cultural events bring Havana’s history to life.
Educational Value
The fortifications serve as open-air classrooms, offering insights into colonial history, architecture, and maritime strategy. Educational programs and exhibitions help raise awareness about the importance of preserving cultural heritage.
Cultural Identity
For Cubans, Old Havana’s fortifications are more than relics of the past; they are symbols of national identity and pride. They embody the resilience, creativity, and enduring spirit of the Cuban people.
Morne Trois Pitons National Park Dominica
Morne Trois Pitons National Park Dominica
15° 19.8566' N 061°18.5' W
Morne Trois Pitons National Park, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, is a haven of natural beauty and scientific intrigue in Dominica. Anchored by the 1,342-meter-high Morne Trois Pitons volcano, the park spans nearly 7,000 hectares of lush tropical rainforest. Its striking landscape boasts steep slopes, deeply incised valleys, and a remarkable array of geothermal features, including over 50 fumaroles, bubbling hot springs, and the famously mysterious Boiling Lake.
The park’s volcanic features are complemented by three serene freshwater lakes and the presence of five distinct volcanoes, making it a geological treasure trove. Morne Trois Pitons also holds the title of having the richest biodiversity in the Lesser Antilles, home to a vibrant array of flora and fauna, including rare and endemic species.
Visitors are drawn to the park’s blend of dramatic terrain and rich ecosystems, offering an unmatched opportunity to explore both natural beauty and geological marvels. Whether hiking through its trails, marveling at volcanic activity, or encountering its diverse wildlife, Morne Trois Pitons National Park exemplifies the wonders of Dominica’s "Nature Island" identity.
GET THERE
- If arriving by yacht or ferry, you can dock at Roseau, Dominica’s capital. From Roseau, the park is accessible via a 45-minute drive to its main entry points.
- Driving:
The park has several access points, depending on your destination within it. Key trails and sites like the Boiling Lake or Freshwater Lake are reached via roads leading to Laudat or Wotten Waven. Renting a 4x4 vehicle is advisable due to steep and uneven roads. - Guided Tours:
Joining a guided eco-tour from Roseau or other major towns is a great way to explore the park. Local guides provide insights into the geology, biodiversity, and cultural significance of the area.
Best Time to Visit:
- Dry Season (February to May):
This is the ideal time to visit. The trails are less muddy, and the weather is generally clear, making it perfect for hiking and exploring geothermal sites. - Rainy Season (June to November):
While the park remains lush and vibrant, heavy rains can make trails slippery and more challenging. Visitors during this time should come prepared with proper gear and expect some areas to be inaccessible. - Special Events:
The park’s flora and fauna are active year-round, but birdwatchers and nature enthusiasts often find April and May particularly rewarding as many species thrive in the late dry season.
Xunantunich 🇧🇿 BELIZE | Must See along the Panama Posse Route
Xunantunich 🇧🇿 BELIZE | Must See
Journeying through the Mysteries of Xunantunich: AN Explorer's Tale
In the heart of Belize's lush jungle, where the air is thick with the scent of ancient mysteries, lies Xunantunich – a Mayan marvel cloaked in history and legend. As an explorer venturing into the depths of Central America, we find ourselves irresistibly drawn to this enigmatic site, eager to uncover its secrets and experience the whispers of a giant past
Across the hand cranked river ferry and Into the Jungle
We trekked through the sunstrewn foliage of the Cayo District, guided by Gilberto and the promise of adventure and the distant echoes of ancient civilizations. The path to Xunantunich wound through towering trees, each step bringing us closer to the heart of Maya territory.
The Encounter with the Woman in White
Xunantunich was reportedly haunted by the spirit of a woman cloaked in white, who roamed the ruins at night, guarding its sacred secrets. Though skeptics dismissed her as a mere legend, we couldn't shake the feeling that all was being watched.
The Ascend of El Castillo
We began the ascent of El Castillo in the mid morning heat, our footsteps echoing against the weathered stone. Each terrace brought us closer to the summit, where panoramic views of the flora stretched out before us like a vast tapestry of history.
From this vantage point, we marveled at the intricate carvings that adorned the pyramid's facade – scenes of gods and warriors frozen in time, their stories etched into the very fabric of the stone. Amidst the ruins of a once-thriving civilization, we felt a profound sense of connection to the ancient Maya and their enduring legacy.
The Hieroglyphic Stairway
Adjacent to El Castillo stood Structure A-6, its Hieroglyphic Stairway a testament to the Maya's mastery of language and symbolism. Each glyph seemed to whisper secrets of dynasties long past, offering tantalizing glimpses into the rituals and beliefs that shaped their world.
Reflections on Cultural Significance
Beyond the allure of ancient mysteries, Xunantunich held profound cultural significance for the modern-day Maya and the people of Belize. It was a living link to their shared heritage, a reminder of the resilience and ingenuity of those who had come before us.
Xunantunich was more than just a relic of the past – it was a testament to the enduring power of exploration, discovery, and preservation. Belize is a guardian of this sacred heritage, it is a responsibility to ensure that future generations have the opportunity to experience the wonders of the ancient Maya for themselves, to walk in the footsteps of those who came before and to forge their own connections
We vow to carry the spirit of Xunantunich with me wherever our travels may lead, knowing that the mysteries of the Maya would always beckon, waiting to be explored by those who seek them out.
🇺🇸 CASTILLO SAN MARCOS
🇺🇸 CASTILLO SAN MARCOS, St Augustine Florida
The Castillo de San Marcos is the oldest masonry fort in the continental United Statesand is located on the western shore of Matanzas Bay in the city of St. Augustine, Florida. The Castillo was designed by the Spanish engineer Ignacio Daza and construction begn in 1672, 107 years after the city's founding by Spanish Admiral and conquistador Pedro Menéndez de Avilés, when Florida was part of the Spanish Empire.
Castillo de San Marcos was for many years the northernmost outpost of Spain's vast New World empire. It is the oldest masonry fort and the best-preserved ex-ample of a Spanish colonial fortification in the continental United States. It anchored East Florida's defenses, which extended northward to the St. Marys River, westward to the St. Johns, and southward to Fort Matanzas. It protected St. Augustine from pirate raids and from Spain's major rival, Great Britain, during a time when the Florida-Georgia-Carolina coastline was an explosive international battleground.
![When Britain gained control of Florida in 1763 pursuant to the Treaty of Paris, St. Augustine became the capital of British East Florida, and the fort was renamed Fort St. Mark[8] until the Peace of Paris (1783) when Florida was transferred back to Spain and the fort's original name restored. In 1819, Spain signed the Adams–Onís Treaty which ceded Florida to the United States in 1821; consequently, the fort was designated a United States Army base and renamed Fort Marion, in honor of American Revolutionary War hero Francis Marion. The fort was declared a National Monument in 1924, and after 251 years of continuous military possession, was deactivated in 1933. The 20.48-acre (8.29 ha) site was subsequently turned over to the United States National Park Service. In 1942 the original name, Castillo de San Marcos, was restored by an Act of Congress.](https://oceanposse.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/castillossanmarcos-1024x637.jpg)
The roots of the Castillo's history reach back to the years just after Christopher Columbus's final transatlantic voyage, when conquistadors carved out a vast and wealthy overseas empire for Spain, first in the Caribbean and then on the mainlands of Mexico, Central America, Colombia, Venezuela, and Peru. Products of these tropical and mountainous territories brought high prices on the Continent, and Spanish galleons sailed home laden with exotic dyes, sugar, tobacco, chocolate, pearls, hardwoods, and silver and gold. These so-called "treasure fleets" made Spain the most powerful and envied nation in Renaissance Europe.
Thanks to the travels of Ponce de Leon in 1513, Spanish navigators knew that the best return route from Spain's rich Caribbean possessions was along the Gulf Stream, through the Bahama Channel, and past the shores of Florida. The Spanish knew they must defend this peninsula to prevent enemies from using its harbors as havens from which to raid the passing treasure fleets.
In 1513 Spain claimed Florida through the expedition of Ponce de Leon, but France gained the first foothold there by establishing Fort Caroline on the St. Johns River in 1564. Seeing this as both a challenge to Spain's claims and a menace to the treasure fleets, King Philip II sent an expedition under Don Pedro Menendez de Aviles to eliminate the French threat and establish settlements in Florida. It arrived at the mouth of the St. Johns River in September 1565.
After attempting unsuccessfully to board the French ships anchored there, Menendez sailed to a harbor farther south and established St. Augustine as a base for further operations. Almost immediately a French fleet sailed south to attack. But the ships were driven southward and wrecked by a violent storm and the mission failed. Realizing that Fort Caroline would be lightly guarded, the Spaniards marched north, captured the fort, and executed most of the inhabitants.
The same fate befell survivors from the French fleet, whom the Spaniards captured and killed at an inlet 14 miles south of St. Augustine. The episode gave a name to the area: Matanzas, Spanish for "slaughters."
England became Spain's next contender for Florida. The Spanish had watched the English warily ever since Sir Francis Drake attacked and burned St. Augustine in 1586. They became even more watchful after English-men settled Jamestown in 1607. British pirates sacked St. Augustine again in 1668, and this hit-and-run attack, followed by the English settlement of Charleston in 1670, caused Spain to build the Castillo de San Marcos.
Begun in 1672 and completed by 1695, the Castillo replaced nine successive wooden fortifications that had protected St. Augustine since its founding. The fort's commanding location on the west bank of Matanzas Bay allowed its guns to protect not only the harbor entrance but the ground to the north against a land attack.
The Castillo's baptism of fire came in 1702 during the War of the Spanish Succession, when the English occupied St. Augustine and unsuccessfully besieged the fort for 50 days. The English burned the town before they left, but the Castillo emerged unscathed, thereby making it a symbolic link between the old St. Augustine of 1565 and the new city that rose from the ashes.
When Britain gained control of Florida in 1763 pursuant to the Treaty of Paris, St. Augustine became the capital of British East Florida, and the fort was renamed Fort St. Mark[8] until the Peace of Paris (1783) when Florida was transferred back to Spain and the fort's original name restored. In 1819, Spain signed the Adams–Onís Treaty which ceded Florida to the United States in 1821; consequently, the fort was designated a United States Army base and renamed Fort Marion, in honor of American Revolutionary War hero Francis Marion. The fort was declared a National Monument in 1924, and after 251 years of continuous military possession, was deactivated in 1933. The 20.48-acre (8.29 ha) site was subsequently turned over to the United States National Park Service. In 1942 the original name, Castillo de San Marcos, was restored by an Act of Congress.
Castillo SAN MARCOS Timeline
- 1513 Sailing from Puerto Rico, Spanish claim Florida.
- 1565 Spanish found St. Augustine and destroy French at Fort Caroline and Matanzas Inlet.
- 1672 Ground is broken on October 2 for Castillo de San Marcos.
- 1695 Castillo de San Marcos (curtain walls, bastions, living quarters, moat, ravelin, and sea-wall) is finished in August.
- 1702 War of the Spanish Succession pits Spain and France against Austria, Great Britain, and others. Coastal Georgia missions are destroyed by Carolinians en route to St. Augustine. Carolinians occupy and burn St. Augustine but the Castillo successfully resists their siege.
- 1738 Spanish governor at St. Augustine grants freedom to runaway British slaves. Black families settle at new town called Fort Mose.
- 1740 St. Augustine successfully endures siege by British, Georgian, and South Carolinian forces. Spanish attack and de-feat British Highland troops camped at Fort Mose.
- 1740-42 Fort Matanzas is built to block southern approach to St. Augustine.
- 1756-62 Fort Mose re-built in masonry. Earth-works at Mose extended to complete northern-most defense.
- 1763 Peace of Paris gives Florida to Great Britain in exchange for La Habana. Castillo becomes known as Fort St. Mark.
- 1783 Peace of Paris recognizes independence of the United States and returns Florida to Spain.
- 1821 Spain cedes Florida to the United States.
- 1825 Castillo de San Marcos renamed Fort Marion.
- 1924 Fort Marion and Fort Matanzas are proclaimed national monuments
- 1933 Transferred to the National Parks Service
- 1942 Original name Castillo San Marcos is restored
GET THERE BY YACHT
🇲🇽 Palenque
Palenque also anciently known as Lakamha "Big Water" , was a Maya city state in southern Mexico that flourished in the 7th century. The Palenque ruins date from ca. 226 BC to ca. 799 AD. After its decline, it was overgrown by the jungle of cedar, mahogany, and sapodilla trees, but has since been excavated and restored with an onsite museum. It is located near the Usumacinta River in the Mexican state of Chiapas resides at 150 meters (490 ft) above sea level.
Palenque is a medium-sized site, smaller than Tikal but it contains some of the finest architecture, sculpture, roof comb and relief carvings that the Mayas produced. Much of the history of Palenque has been reconstructed from reading the hieroglyphic inscriptions on the many monuments; historians now have a long sequence of the ruling dynasty of Palenque in the 5th century and extensive knowledge of the city-state's rivalry with other states such as Calakmul and Toniná. The most famous ruler of Palenque was K'inich Janaab Pakal, or Pacal the Great, whose tomb has been found and excavated in the Temple of the Inscriptions. On the lid, as in his tomb, Pakal is positioned in an intermediary space, between the heavens—symbolized by the world tree and bird above him—and Xibalba, the Maya underworld. In addition to the remains of Pakal, precious materials such as jade, shells, pearls, and obsidians were discovered inside the sarcophagus.
It is estimated that less than 10% of the total area of the city is explored, leaving more than a thousand structures still covered by jungle.
The first published account of this lost city was in 1567, from a Friar of the Dominican Order Pedro Lorenzo de la Nada. Lorenzo came upon its stone temples, terraces, plazas and architecture, originally decorated with blue- and red-painted stucco but by then long abandoned by the Maya who built it. Lorenzo gave the grand structure the name Palenque, a Spanish word meaning "fortification." As drought and warfare tore apart the social and political fabric of the Maya the Spanish conquistadors began claiming Maya land for plantations and subjugating Maya people to work on them, many residents of storied stone cities such as Yaxchilan and Palenque fled to the countryside in search of a better life. Ultimately they founded a host of new Maya cultures. Some people, known as the Lacandon Maya, established themselves in the forests around Lake Mensabak in the southern Mexican state of Chiapas. Their descendants still live in this region today. They are the Hach Winik, “the true people” in Yucatec Mayan.
The rulers of Palenque were called the "Holy Lord of Toktahn" or "Holy Lord of Baakal", and among the king list are several legendary leaders, including Snake Spine and Ch'a Ruler I. The very first named ruler of Palenque is GI, the First Father, said to have been born 3122 BCE, and the Ancestral Goddess said to have been born 3121 BCE.
The dynastic rulers of Palenque begin with Bahlum-Kuk or K'uk Balahm, the Quetzal Jaguar, who took the throne of Palenque in 431 AD.
Lengthy Mayan texts, which researchers have used to translate Maya script.
16th century
The quest to decipher Maya hieroglyphs began with the very Spanish invaders whose rule did so much to wipe out the ancient Maya script. Among them was the conquistador Hernando Cortes, who led massacres in Mexico but who also, some scholars believe, had the famous Dresden Codex—one of just four Maya illustrated books surviving today—shipped back to Spain. Another was Diego de Landa, a friar bent on replacing indigenous with Christian beliefs. In what amounts to a crime against the cultural heritage of humanity, Landa orchestrated the burning in 1562 of hundreds if not thousands of Maya bark-paper books, which he deemed heretical. Yet four years later, Landa wrote a manuscript about the Maya world called "Relation of the Things of Yucatan" (left). Together, this manuscript and the Dresden Codex proved essential in the later decoding of the Maya's calendar system and their advanced understanding of astronomy and mathematics
1832
Counting
Actual decipherment began with an eccentric European genius named Constantine Rafinesque, who boasted of having dabbled in more than a dozen professions, from archeology to zoology. His insatiable thirst for knowledge had led Rafinesque to a reproduction of just five pages of the Dresden Codex, from which he was able to crack the Maya's system of counting. In 1832, Rafinesque declared in his newsletter, the Atlantic Journal and Friend of Knowledge, that the dots and bars seen in Maya glyphs (like these at left, from the Dresden Codex) represented simple numbers—a dot equaled one and a bar five. Later findings proved him right and also revealed that the Maya even had a symbol for zero, which appeared on Mesoamerican carvings as early as 36 B.C. (Zero didn't appear in Western Europe until the 12th century.)
1881
Photo documentation
Britain's Alfred Maudslay was a respected diplomat, but he would be best remembered for his work as an amateur Mayanist. Fascinated by scholars' writings on the Maya and by new advancements in photography, Maudslay set out to create as complete a record as possible of the civilization's architecture and art. Using a large-format, glass-plate camera, he captured highly detailed images of Maya sites, including clear close-ups of the glyphs (left). He also prepared papier-mâché casts of several carvings from which accurate drawings were later made. Maudslay had effectively given Maya studies its first systematic corpus, or body, of inscriptions. This helped make further decipherments possible, in part by bringing glyphs to scholars who had limited access to the few surviving Maya texts.
1952
The sounds of the glyphs
While glyph studies languished in the West, a Russian linguist in Moscow was making his own groundbreaking discoveries. In 1952, Yuri Knorosov (left) postulated that the individual symbols in Maya glyphs stood for phonetic sounds, much like English letters do. Knorosov knew that Maya had too many glyphs to be a true alphabet but too few for each glyph to symbolize an entire word. (Maya's 800-plus glyphs compare to the several thousand characters of Chinese, for example.) He determined that written Maya, like Egyptian hieroglyphics, contained a combination of these elements. Because "west," in spoken Maya, is "chik'in," and "k'in" is the word for sun, the hand represents the syllable "chi," as Knorosov concluded. Fortunately, American scholars Michael and Sophie Coe began publishing Knorosov's papers in the U.S. in the late 1950s. Otherwise, his important (though incomplete) findings might have been inaccessible to Western scholars until the end of the Cold War.
Tombraiders
Scientific debt is owned to the famed Mexican archaeologist Alberto Lhuillier, who in 1952 removed a stone inside the Temple of Inscriptions and found the burial tomb of Pakal the Great. This has since become one of the most extensively studied archaeological sites in the Americas.
500 years later this site is one of the most visited archaeological sites in Mexico with close to 1M visitors x year. Archeological researchers have uncovered some of the most detailed information about Maya culture
How to get there
Leave your vessel at Marina Chiapas on the Pacific coast ( entry and exit in Puerto Madero South Western Mexico) and drive to this site with a shared guided tour - or if you are adventurous drive yourself though Zapatista territory. Although the EZLN is still active and maintains a few strongholds in Chiapas, things are relatively peaceful and there is no threat to tourists. Travelers are advised to respect any roadblocks they may come across in rural areas which may require payment of an unofficial road tax. Get to the site early int he day before most day tourist show up and head to the Museum at mid day to avoid the crowds and chachki vendors inside the park which amass around 11 AM.
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